THE OTHERING OF CHINA IN MEDIA DISCOURSE A COVID19 SCENARIO

http://dx.doi.org/10.31703/gpr.2023(VIII-IV).01      10.31703/gpr.2023(VIII-IV).01      Published : Dec 2023
Authored by : Gul e Abid , Saadia Fatima , Abida Ayesha

01 Pages : 1-11

    Abstract

    At the outbreak of COVID-19, China was remarkably in the spotlight and caught reasonable coverage by the international media. The study analyses the ideological discourse produced by the media depicting the “othering” of China by employing Van Dijk’s Ideological Square (2006) as its theoretical bearing, and further draws a comparison between the representation of both Canada and China by the Canadian newspaper ‘The Globe and Mail’. Findings depict that terms like “Chinese Government”, “China” and” Chinese Citizens” formulate the main subjects of the ideological discourse regarding China’s image. Many rhetorical devices like number games, news source adoption, illustration, irony, implication, vagueness and comparison have also been highlighted to discuss China's image represented in the media

    Key Words

    COVID-19, Media Discourse, “Othering” and Ideological Square,

    Introduction

    A nation or country’s image is strongly correlated with its institutions, and political and cultural values linked with other elements. China's reformation since 1978 has brought economic development and stability to its share. It emerged as a successful nation diplomatically, economically, politically and culturally. Despite all this progress, there always remains a gap between how China perceives its own image and how other nations perceive its image globally (Van Dijk., 2008). During and after the pandemic, the global negative perceptions regarding China's role in handling the pandemic surfaced significantly, especially through the media. Any country's national image is closely linked with media coverage as it can not only influence but also formulate the public's opinion toward different global affairs. Due to the sudden and vast spread of COVID-19 that originated in Wuhan, this pandemic attracted the attention of the media and became the centre of its coverage. This as a result brought China into the spotlight and every step taken by China in controlling the pandemic was critically discussed by international channels and its every move was criticized from different perspectives. This paved the way for further studies regarding the portrayal of the national image through the media discourse.

    Literature Review

    In the study, “In the Eyes of the Beholder: Sentiment and Topic Analyses on Social Media Use of Neutral and Controversial Terms for COVID-19”, sentiment feature analysis and topic modelling has been used to show how the notorious term "Chinese virus" and non-scandalous term "COVID-19" used are substantially different. Twitter filters were used to create a controversial dataset (CD) and a non-controversial dataset (ND); with CD including #Chinese Virus and ND including #Covid-19 and #Corona making a substantial part of the tweets. The term "Chinese" in "Chinese Virus" seems to be highly associated with ethnicity rather than the disease itself which suggests the negative impact it induces. This study confirms this negative influence through real-time usage of both terms on Twitter, where the term “Chinese Virus” carries a lot of anger along with other negative emotions. Some public figures were also seen to be using the term “Chinese virus” which led to a whole conversation filled with racist and xenophobic comments along with hate speeches towards people of China. This can also be observed in an emotion score for CD being lower than that of ND indicating more negative tones. It was also seen that people more often used the controversial term to discuss and spread hate speeches against China on social media rather than discussing the ways to eradicate the virus (Yang, Luo, & Wang, 2020). 

    Another case study that highlights the attitude of international media towards China during the epidemic is "China in the Eyes of News Media: A Case Study under COVID-19 Epidemic". It addresses the main issues regarding the main focus of media during COVID-19 and its tone and attitude during reporting of China. The study indicated that the employment component of Chinese people was heavily addressed after selecting a number of samples from news and media representation in twenty-two nations. The news media attitude towards China from Cuba, Malaysia and Venezuela was positive as compared to the negative tones used by the media in France, Canada, and the United Kingdom.  China's management of the livelihoods of its people was the greatest concern of countries like Singapore and Malaysia. However, Canada and France focused more on the possible political power change in the country. More notably, in January, the tone of media outlets was neutral, but as the pandemic aggravated, the tones became increasingly negative. Thus, this study suggests that the media had a great influence on the negative portrayal of China internationally.

    One more study highlights the effect of COVID-19 being extremely evident on “China’s destination image” as well. The study, "Do you dare to travel to China? An examination of China's destination image amid COVID-19" focuses on China (the first epicentre of COVID-19) by using mixed methods. The data was retrieved mainly from US travellers examining their perception regarding China's destination and purpose of travel. The research revealed that the considerable decline in travelling to China during COVID-19 was significantly influenced by a variety of factors, especially “the safety and security of the destination”.  It was discovered through a straightforward content analysis of CNN news reports that China was directly related to COVID-19 and that a lot of recent headlines on the epidemic stirred up unfavourable feelings. No previous worldwide catastrophe, according to Dr Pennington-Gray, had an impact on every aspect of the tourist sector and every nation on the planet. Among all the countries, China was one of the most severely impacted. According to the China Tourism Academy, China's tourist influx was predicted to decline by up to 80% in the first half of 2020. Researchers claim that the negative news coverage of China on a global scale was the major source of its damaged image as a tourism destination.

    A national image is the most powerful and effective tool to rule the globe in these modern times. Another research, “Representation of China's image on The Globe and Mail – a corpus-based critical discourse analysis from the perspective of van Dijk’s Ideology Square by Mengting Wang”, precisely talks about how China was “othered", particularly through the media coverage in those critical times. Even while China excelled, notably in the economic sector, there were significant differences between China's own view and the general impression of the country, which became abundantly obvious throughout the news coverage of COVID-19. The media has a noteworthy impact on how the public perceives a nation since it shapes public opinion and may have a good or bad impact. This study demonstrates that the COVID-19 outbreak in Wuhan at the beginning of 2020 caused the media and the news to focus attention on China. The national image of China was heavily debated, and the services provided by the Chinese government in containing the epidemic were also looked at from a new angle. Additionally, a lot of research has been done on the derogatory language used by Canadian media, in particular, to portray China in the West. In this study, the researcher looked at how China was portrayed in one of Canada's major media outlets, "The Globe and Mail”. This study examines news articles from 2020 that were published by "The Globe and Mail," carefully analyzing them using Van Dijk's "Ideological Square" to show the polarised perceptions of the Chinese and Canadian governments by depicting the positive self-presentation of the Canadian government and the negative other-presentation of the Chinese government (Yin, 2007; Zhang & Wu, 2017). Additionally, it showed how the media organization's personal national beliefs and interests were expressed in the new reports. 

    The other research, “The virus of fear and anxiety: China, COVID-19, and the Australian media by Wanning Sun”, offers additional information to the research on China's targeting by examining how the Australian media portrays China's role in containing the epidemic following COVID-19. On a range of viewpoints, news reports, and documentaries on China's efforts to prevent this epidemic, critical discourse analysis is conducted. The information is gathered from many radio and television programmes (Sun, 2021). The Australian Newspaper, The Sydney Morning Herald and other tabloid papers.  Similar to the previous research stated above, this study examines the many perspectives and vantage points from which the narratives generated about China's efforts might be seen. These stories seem to situate China's initiatives within political and ideological frameworks. Moreover, the media acquired “conspiratorial, racist and Sin-phobic positions”. Though China had been Australia's largest commercial collaborator, phrases like "Chinese influence" and "China threat" have been used categorically to describe this infection. Instead of reflecting the reality of how people in China encountered and managed COVID-19, this is an indication of Australia's own ideological, national, and political insecurities.

    In a study by Mai & Jocuns (2023), the media discourse about the government controlling the pandemic of two newspapers China Daily and The New York Times was analysed using multimodal critical discourse analysis. The findings showed that the Chinese government is more efficient and quicker in response where whereas Trump’s government is irrational about the matter.

    After reviewing the relevant literature, it is perceived that little research has been done on how China was "Othered" by some of the countries during the time of the global pandemic.  The research in hand proceeds with the quest of how China during COVID-19 was portrayed by the media.

    Research Questions

    This study aims to answer three main questions through the application of the theoretical framework of ideology square that areas flows:

    a) What image of China is being shaped during/after COVID-19? 

    b) How does the International Media construct China’s image through certain discourse strategies?

    c) What national interests could be served through the newscast by 'The Globe and Mail' as manifested in media discourse?

    The Rationale of the Study

    It has been observed that as China’s economic rise had been discussed by the media for several years so, China’s coverage in relevance with the pandemic also dominated the media (Y. E. Yang & Liu, 2012). To unveil China’s image and how ideology plays a great role in the construction of China’s image by the media, this study explores it through the lens of Critical Discourse Analysis by analyzing certain texts and employing Van Dijk’s Ideological Square. The data is chosen from December 2019 to December 2020 as this is considered to be the peak of the outburst of the pandemic.

    Methodology

    A range of headlines and news stories, primarily from The Globe and Mail and ABC News, are gathered for further analysis using Van Dijk's ideological square. This research was done to show how China's reputation and image have been attacked both during and after the pandemic's spread. The requirements of this research dictated a small sample size.

    Theoretical Framework

    Critical discourse analysis emphasizes the discourse representing the world holding certain ideologies but also plays a role in constituting and reshaping those ideologies in the world. CDA states that discourse constantly changes according to specific times, places and conditions (Fairclough, 1992). Furthermore, it depicts power relations and the construction of social reality. Although the readers enjoy the freedom of interpreting reality according to their capacity through certain strategies being employed in the discourse, the cognition of the readers can be distinctively affected. The understanding of the text in depth can be achieved through discourse analysis to elaborate the operation of language in certain social and cultural scenarios.

    One of the theories developed under CDA is Van Dijk’s Ideological square and it aims to understand the discursive power relations. This framework helps unveil the hidden ideologies and power relations behind the discourses produced in different settings. He characterizes ideology as a social belief that a social group holds collectively. (Van Dijk, 2006, p. 116). Certain terms and word choices help in inducing certain ideologies unconsciously in the subconscious of people over a period of time and gradually it becomes the new norm of society.

    Van Dijk elaborated his theory of ideological square for the first time in Opinions and Ideologies in the Press talks about ideological, racial and political prejudice and discrimination.

    It involves four basic elements

    1. Highlight or state facts that are 'good' about us. 

    2. State or highlight facts about them that are 'bad'.

    3. Suppress or downplay any "positive" information about them.

    4. Suppress or downplay information that portrays us in a negative manner.

    Analysis

    If we look at headlines and news produced on different social and digital media, we can see a clear display of the "othering" of China after COVID-19.

    In March 2020, there had been a meme found circulating about China on the forum WeChat which was 

    “The battle against COVID-19: China played the first half, the world played the second half, and overseas Chinese were on the field throughout.”

    This meme very clearly depicted the apprehension about COVID-19 expressed by the Chinese migrants so; it became quite famous among them.

    Severely ideologically loaded discourse was produced involving jokes regarding Chinese people. There were tabloid newspapers using a range of offensive anti-Chinese jokes and headlines. “China Kids Stay Home” is one of the instances that talk about kids who came back to Australia from China. One more racist statement, "Chinese Virus Panda-monium,” was observed having panda marked with a dissimilar colour. Such headlines and jokes resulted in igniting the anger of the Chinese community and the newspapers Herald Sun and Daily Telegraph categorically addressed to apologize for their “downright offensive and unacceptable” comments (Wong, 2020).

    The Chinese government and tabloid journalists covering China for the Australian media had developed a deep gap. It was also found that in April 2020, a Chinese Consulate-General addressed the series of articles that were published by "The Daily Telegraph" regarding China's response towards the pandemic. It was claimed that the articles were “full of ignorance, prejudice and arrogance” while addressing China’s role in controlling the pandemic.

    However, it was found that the newspaper responded through the production of a number of articles using a very direct and argumentative tone to every single issue raised against its reporting regarding China against COVID-19. The statement that "people-centred philosophy" was adopted by China while handling the pandemic was addressed by “The Telegraph” through the words, "Please tell us more about your 'people-centred philosophy' and how many bullets it requires." The Consulate-General replied to this statement with evidence in the form of a story that was produced by "The Telegraph" having images that were a clear insult to China and “defaced design of China’s national emblem maliciously linking COVID-19 with China.” This again was answered through the offensive pieces produced by “the Telegraph” quite openly which were not only derogatory but clearly anti-China.

    The police are actually knocking on doors . . ., they're dragging them out, mate. . . . It's quite terrifying knowing that people can knock on your door and drag you out for no reason at all because you've got a temperature. (ABC Television, 2020a)

    Here we can observe that through the terms "dragging", "police", and "terrifying" distinctive apprehension is created against the manner in which the patients of the pandemic are treated. It further distorts China's image as the representation of such a chaotic situation and maltreatment of the patients without even having proper evidence of their being Corona-positive, giving a terrifying depiction of this state. However, the reality was quite the opposite and people's welfare and safety were given utmost priority.

    They lost about two weeks, maybe three weeks, just when the virus was at its [sic] sort of nascent point, just at a time where they could have traced it, just at a time where perhaps they could have checked it more substantially. But that was lost because it got caught up in the politics of the information flow and information surveillance in China. (ABC Television, 2020a)

    Though China played a remarkable role in handling and curing the pandemic, its efforts are criticized greatly in the text by indicating China being involved in hiding the true facts because of political reasons and causing unnecessary delays in dealing with the pandemic. Ignoring all the efforts put in by China and highlighting only the loopholes is one of the clearest examples of Negative other-presentation.

    The public intellectuals and the public both realized that Dr Li represents the conscience of China. He was suppressed from the beginning from telling the truth. He could have saved . . . thousands of people’s lives. But all this was concealed due to the authority’s suppression of free speech. (ABC Television, 2020a)

    Here clearly the Chinese officials are being targeted for hiding the facts and figures to save their image and that they were responsible for so many deaths. Here we do not find the technique of vagueness only as instead of directly saying that they were responsible for the deaths of thousands of people, it is written that thousands of people could have been saved. So that the readers can easily grasp the main point behind the discourse that China was responsible for all those deaths. Side by side the News source adoption technique is also seen being employed as to some extent public intellectuals and the public are claimed to be sharing the same point of view as the media. Though these sources are not absolute or specific but are enough to create doubt in people's minds and to add reliability to the facts presented.

    We can see from the data that Canada's positive self-presentation and Canadian Government are evident in the discourse leading to its self-glorification which can be clearly seen in extracts 2, 8, 11 and 15 where categorically the efforts rendered by Canada in controlling the virus are highlighted.

    The negative portrayal of others is also termed a “strategy of derogation” (Van Dijk, 2013). This technique sheds light on the negative or unpleasant facts or traits of the "outgroup". This strategy can be employed through certain other techniques that are mentioned below.

    Self and other

    Self- and other-depiction are the two fundamental topics of ideological discourse. The actors appear to take roles of "ingroup" (we) or "outgroup" (they). This self-other classification is used to describe the discourse structures that support various ideologies. It can be observed through the data collected from The Globe and Mail that terms like "Chinese Government" and "Chinese authorities" have been used categorically in the manner to depict China as an "outgroup" member. On the other hand, as the origin of The Globe and Mail is Canada, so "Canadian Government" and its members depict Canada as an "ingroup” member. This can be clearly observed in extracts 2,3,7,11,15 and for self-presentation versus extracts 1,4,5,6,12,16,17,18,19,20,21 and 22 for other-representation.

    Polarization

    Polarization is also an effective technique in ideological discourses through which mainly the good things about the “ingroup” and bad things about the “outgroup” are being emphasized.  This can be done by using certain rhetorical devices, number games, the selection of news sources, irony, implication, presumption, vagueness, and illustrations, among other techniques. Polarization can be brought into effect by putting us versus them as opposite poles. Through the data collected from The Globe and Mail, it is evident that there is polarization between the Chinese and Canadian governments, as evidenced by their respective displays of positive and negative self-presentation. 

    Number games

    It is observed that news reports employ number games to display reliability and credibility of the facts and figures e.g. the news broadcasted by The Globe and Mail said

    “Millions In China On Lockdown As Coronavirus Spreads; Research Shows The Virus Is Killing 14% Of Hospitalized Patients As Cases Appear In Other Countries, Including France and Singapore”

    “Ottawa Working With China To Evacuate Canadians: Pm; Canada Is Seeking Approval To Pick Up 196 Residents InWuhan Who Have Asked For Help Leaving Amid Coronavirus Outbreak”

    “Evacuees Settle into Trenton's Yukon Lodge; More Than 200 Canadians Now Home From Wuhan Will Be Confined To Air Base For The Next Two Weeks”

    News source

    News source selection is another way of boosting the credibility of the news that is being broadcast by the newscaster.  They include any of the authorities supporting their point of view to further enhance their credibility as could be observed in news broadcasted by The Globe and the Mail.

    “Chinese Consulate Hits Back At Kenney; Alberta Premier Accused Of Ignoring Facts In Effort To Appease Trump With Anti-China Rhetoric”

    “Barton Takes Harder Line On China; Canada's Ambassador To Beijing Says Country's Conduct Undermining Its International Influence; Calls For Review Of Who”

    Irony

    Van Dijk also states that if the facts are presented through the technique of irony they carry more effect rather than being presented straightaway. As we can see in extracts 5, 8 and 17 where China is being targeted for miscommunication, manipulation and covering the facts in a very ironic tone

    Implication

    The strategy of Implication is also employed in which the facts that are easily comprehensible should not be expressed overtly. The information though is implicit but signals the readers enough to grasp the hidden ideology behind the words. As we can see in extract 23.

    Comparison/ History as a lesson

    Another technique is the comparison of either different subjects or the same subject over a period of time (diachronic) for example in extracts 3, 8 and 12; China has been clearly criticized regarding its handling of SARS in the past.

    Vagueness

    Vagueness is another technique in which when the evidence is unclear and the facts are being stated vaguely. This tactic is typically employed to guard against ignorance of a particular fact. We can observe the technique in extracts 1 and 8 where the news is spread merely without any solid evidence.

    Illustrations

    Another powerful tool to use in the ideological discourse is illustrations. Illustrations are used to make the discourse more memorable and more imaginable. Through short stories or examples, ripples are created in the minds of the readers to make the facts more plausible and striking. We do not find this technique in the headlines collected as a sample.

    By looking at Tables 1 and 2, we can see that a clear comparison is drawn between Canada and China through the usage of extremely ideologically loaded language produced by media. It is evident that as The Globe and Mail is the media that represents Canada the bias can easily be seen in the ideological discourse produced by it. In ideological discourses, it is typically noticed that various techniques are employed to accentuate good self-presentation and bad other-presentation; yet, in certain cases, the converse is observed. Through the data, we analyze that China's positive image is also highlighted but only regarding its economic achievements whereas, its political image is distorted and destroyed. Examples are 3, 8 and 12 where we can vividly observe this technique.

    News reflects the political, cultural and social events from the past through different means and depicts the subjective reality rather than the objective one. It also amalgamates the construction of the news caster’s reality regarding a certain event and the understanding of the reader of that event from varied perspectives (Van Dijk, 1988).

    Limitations and Conclusion of the study:

    This study presents the examination of a rather moderate corpus utilizing Van Dijk's ideological square as an analytical framework. The building of China's image is a topic of much debate. The limitation of the study is that the news and headlines are basically selected from ABC News, The Globe and Mail and some other social platforms forming the database which is not vast enough. This research not only focuses on the hidden ideology behind the discourse produced regarding China during the pandemic but also studies the Positive self-presentation and negative other-presentation and polarization much more clearly by comparing the manner in which both Canada and China are being presented by the particular media. However, news from other sources like TV, the internet or social media is worthy of being selected and it could have given a more comprehensive view of China's image created during a pandemic.

    This study mainly focuses on China's image created during and after the times of pandemic however, other social and political factors and events must also be kept in view as the reason for such specific representation by the media.

    In this study, it is critically examined how China is being "othered" through the use of ideological discourse categorically produced by the media. It includes the data collected from the newspaper "The Globe and Mail" which turned the discourse regarding China's relevance to the pandemic into an ideologically loaded discourse through many strategies and "Chinese Government", "China" and "Chinese Citizens" formed the main subjects of this discourse. It is evident that specific word choices and strategies are effectively used to portray China's negative image. However, The Globe and Mail have clearly portrayed the positive self-image of Canada against the negative self-image of China. Additionally, it was noted that China's image was only presented positively when considering its stability in the economy. The headlines and reports that were published on "China," "Chinese Government," and "Chinese citizens" make it abundantly obvious that The Globe and Mail displayed serious prejudice and attempted to harm China's political reputation internationally. It suited the needs of the nation to which the news station belonged since it specifically targeted China for a variety of political reasons including several historical events.

    Appendix: News and headlines by The Globe and Mail

    1. Travellers Arriving at Three U.S. Airports From Central China To Be Screened For New Coronavirus

    2. Canadian Officials Continue Tests For Coronavirus; World Health Organization Says It's Too Early To Declare It An International Public-Health Emergency As There Is No Evidence Yet Of Sustained Human Transmission Of The Virus Outside China

    3. The City Is Ready For Coronavirus; Toronto's Experience With Sars In 2003 Made The Health System Better Prepared For A Disease Outbreak

    4. China Prolongs New Year Holiday In Bid To Contain Spread Of Virus; Government Tries To Restrict Public Gatherings And Travel As Death Toll Continues To Rise

    5. Opinion; During A Public-Health Crisis, We Need Good Information That Is Clearly Communicated

    6. Opinion; In China, A Health Crisis Tests The Transparency Of Government

    7. Canada, Ontario Take Steps To Prevent Outbreak; Country's Health Officials Face Questions On Whether Their Efforts Are Enough To Control A Virus That Is Causing Worldwide Concern

    8. Opinion; Thanks To The Lessons From Sars, We're Better At Handling Outbreaks

    9. Travelling? Stay Updated About Coronavirus; Airlines And Hotels Offer Refunds, Revise Cancellation Policies As Ottawa Advises Against Non-Essential Travel To China

    10. Outbreak Prompts Companies To Halt Employee Travel To China

    11. Ottawa To Evacuate Canadians Stranded In China

    12. Opinion; Will China Be More Transparent About Coronavirus Than It Was For Sars?

    13. U.S.-China Deal A Threat To Canadian Exporters, Mps Told

    14. Opinion; Businesses Should Plan For Coronavirus Disruption

    15. Canada Confirms Fourth Coronavirus Case; Woman In London, Ont., Who Initially Tested Negative, Arrived In Toronto8

    16. 7

    17. 5fvq\f6Last

    18. Week From Wuhan, The Epicentre Of The Outbreak

    19. Spread Of Misinformation Has Long Been A Global Health Threat

    20. Beijing Praises Ottawa For Calm Response; Chinese Government Lashes Out At U.S. For Spreading Fear, Putting Canada In Middle Of A Diplomatic Spat Again

    21. As The Coronavirus Spreads, China Is Losing Control Online;

    22. An Outpouring Of Anger And Frustration Over The Outbreak Highlights The Chinese Government's Eroding Power In Censoring The Internet

    23. China's Wechat Censoring Poses Public-Health Risk:

    24. Opinion; Let's Zoom Xi. He Has Questions To Answer; China Caused This Pandemic, But Now Wants To Take Credit For Saving Us From It

    25. Opinion; The Great Economic Equalizer; Covid-19 Will Accomplish What Globalization Couldn't Do - Close The Gap In Prosperity Between Rich And Poor Countries

    26. Wuhan Lab Director Calls U.S. Virus-Leak Claims 'Pure Fabrication'

    27. First Pestilence, Then War? China Takes On The World; Since Covid-19 Disrupted Beijing's Plans For Economic Strength And Global Prestige, It Has Increasingly Turned To Military Force And Devastating Diplomacy

    28. Promising Treatments For Covid-19 Advanced By Canadian Scientists; Innovators Hope To Translate Discoveries Into Commercial Success

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Cite this article

    CHICAGO : Abid, Gul e, Saadia Fatima, and Abida Ayesha. 2023. "The 'Othering' of China in Media Discourse: A COVID-19 Scenario." Global Political Review, VIII (IV): 1-11 doi: 10.31703/gpr.2023(VIII-IV).01
    HARVARD : ABID, G. E., FATIMA, S. & AYESHA, A. 2023. The 'Othering' of China in Media Discourse: A COVID-19 Scenario. Global Political Review, VIII, 1-11.
    MHRA : Abid, Gul e, Saadia Fatima, and Abida Ayesha. 2023. "The 'Othering' of China in Media Discourse: A COVID-19 Scenario." Global Political Review, VIII: 1-11
    MLA : Abid, Gul e, Saadia Fatima, and Abida Ayesha. "The 'Othering' of China in Media Discourse: A COVID-19 Scenario." Global Political Review, VIII.IV (2023): 1-11 Print.
    OXFORD : Abid, Gul e, Fatima, Saadia, and Ayesha, Abida (2023), "The 'Othering' of China in Media Discourse: A COVID-19 Scenario", Global Political Review, VIII (IV), 1-11